Estonia, the smallest of the Baltic states, has experienced some dramatic incidents.
In September, Tallinn said Russian MiG-31 fighter jets entered its airspace for 12 minutes. NATO scrambled Italian F-35s stationed in Estonia as part of the Baltic Air Policing mission. Russia denied violating Estonian airspace.
In March, a stray Ukrainian military drone crashed into Estonia's Auvere power station.
In April and May, Estonian authorities said drones entered their airspace, grounding flights and prompting warnings issued to citizens.
Estonia's intelligence services have said that the country does not believe Russia is preparing an imminent military attack on NATO, but that Moscow may be rebuilding its forces for the long term while engaging in hybrid attacks through drones, cyber operations, and sabotage.
Tallinn claims one such hybrid method is the so-called "Narva People's Republic", a pro-Russian separatist narrative that casts Estonia's Russian-speaking border region as a distinct political entity, echoing the Donetsk and Luhansk "people's republics" used by Moscow as a pretext for intervention in Ukraine.
Estonian authorities say it is part of a disinformation campaign rather than a credible separatist movement.
Its military has, at times, been bellicose in its statements.
In May, Estonia's Lieutenant General Andrus Merilo argued that Russia is rebuilding its military much faster than many Europeans realise and that Estonia must be ready for a renewed military threat within the next few years, marking 2027 as a critical benchmark for readiness.
In September 2024, in an interview with the Estonian public broadcaster ERR, Estonian General Vahur Karus stated that if Moscow showed signs of preparing for an attack, Estonia could strike the Russians first.
“Our capability to neutralise the enemy on its own territory is crucial,” he said.
However, the government's rhetoric has been more measured.
In April, Ukrainian President Volodomyr Zelenskyy suggested in an interview that a new wave of Russian mobilisation may be used to launch an attack on the Baltic states.
But Estonian politicians, including the foreign minister, warned that the remarks echoed Moscow’s objective of stoking fears and made cooperation difficult.
“We do not see Russia concentrating its forces or preparing in any way militarily to attack NATO or the Baltic states; rather, it is the opposite. Russia is not in a very strong position on the Ukrainian front, and economically as well,” Estonian Foreign Minister Margus Tsahkna told ERR.
“No one is in the streets panicking,” Tony Lawrence, a research fellow at the International Centre for Defence and Security in Tallinn, told Al Jazeera.
The air incursions have “put people on edge”, but there is a sense that Russian forces are too preoccupied in Ukraine, he said.